Abstract

This paper takes “birds of a feather flock together" as its core concept to explore how the phenomenon of information parasitism reshapes human cognitive patterns and social interactions in the digital age. Through integrating social psychology, Lacanian psychoanalytic theory, and contemporary media studies, this paper argues that information parasitism not only exploits existing group classifications but also actively constructs and manipulates these classifications, thereby producing profound effects on individual subjectivity.

I. Theoretical Foundation: Multiple Dimensions of “Birds of a Feather"

1.1 Similarity-Attraction from a Social Psychology Perspective

From the perspective of social psychology, “birds of a feather flock together" is a social phenomenon that has been confirmed by multiple studies. People tend to like those whose attitudes are similar to their own.

The Cyclical Mechanism of Attraction and Similarity: Social animal theory clearly indicates that, when other conditions are equal, if people know that someone shares their viewpoints, they will believe that person will like them, and whether that person likes them is the most powerful factor determining whether one person likes another. This forms a positive feedback loop: similarity promotes attraction, attraction reinforces the perception of similarity, which further consolidates homogenization within groups.

Construction of Self-cognition and Bias: The way people interpret social events often depends on existing thoughts, beliefs, and categories. After categorizing people or things (i.e., dividing into “types"), they invoke specific data or stereotypes that guide future expectations. For example, stereotypes about a person will influence people’s views and behaviors toward them, forming a “self-fulfilling prophecy"—our concepts unconsciously create behaviors that conform to stereotypes, thereby validating the initial judgment.

The key to this mechanism lies in the fact that individuals have a tendency to maintain and strengthen self-cognition, therefore they tend to choose people whose viewpoints align with their own to reduce cognitive dissonance. This selective contact not only reinforces existing belief systems but further narrows individuals’ cognitive horizons.

1.2 Lacanian Theory: Deep Structure of Subject Constitution

Jacques Lacan’s theory provides a deeper psychological structural foundation for understanding “birds of a feather."

Subject Division and Identification: Lacan believes that the subject is divided, alienated, and fundamentally unconscious, structured by language and the “Other" (big Other). The subject’s identification process involves internalizing the otherness that is foreign to itself. This identification with the “Other," especially with the symbolic order represented by the “big Other," forces the subject to accept social norms and values, thereby integrating into specific social groups.

The Three Orders Theory and Levels of Similarity:

• The Imaginary: Where mirror identification of the ego occurs, the subject forms a unified (but misrecognized) self-image. Individuals are attracted to things that reflect their ideal self, forming “birds of a feather" based on apparent similarity. This attraction is imaginary, built on fantasies of completeness and unity.
• The Symbolic: The domain of language, law, and social norms. Lacan’s famous statement “man’s desire is the Other’s desire" explains that individual desire does not purely come from oneself but is structurally influenced by the “Other’s" desire. This leads to convergence in values, goals, and behavioral patterns within groups, forming a more profound and unconscious “birds of a feather."
• The Real: The traumatic core that cannot be symbolized. The existence of the Real limits the possibility of perfect “birds of a feather" because it represents essential lack and non-identity. Any perfect homogenization cannot be achieved; there is always a “remainder" that cannot be categorized.

Social Extension of Mirror Theory: The mirror stage lays the foundation for individuals to seek similar images and groups in society later on. Through the gaze of others, individuals connect their ego-ideal with the symbolic order, forming a desire to belong to specific “types."

1.3 Support from Referenced Empirical Research

According to research published by Welker et al. in 2024 titled “Self-views converge during enjoyable conversations," this study deeply explores changes in people’s self-views during conversations and their impact on social connections. The study found that participants’ self-views gradually converge during pleasant conversations, a finding of significant importance:

First, it proves that “birds of a feather" is not only the result of similarity-based selection but also a process dynamically formed through interaction. Second, this convergence phenomenon is more pronounced in pleasant situations, suggesting that positive emotional experiences promote the assimilation of viewpoints. Finally, this process is bidirectional—not only seeking similar people but also creating similarity through interaction.

II. Deep Interaction Between Information Parasitism and “Birds of a Feather"

2.1 Operational Mechanisms of Information Parasitism

Information parasitism is defined as a dynamic and complex phenomenon that changes the generation and transmission of meaning at the symbolic and linguistic levels. Combined with the principle of “birds of a feather," information parasitism can be viewed as a powerful force that exploits and constructs group “types."

Manipulating and Reinforcing Existing “Types": Information parasitism precisely identifies and exploits specific groups’ existing beliefs, prejudices, and values through media, advertising, and political propaganda. For example, television advertisements increase brand familiarity through repeated播放, making it “naturally" become a “selectable item" in consumers’ minds, even without deep consideration of its content.

The subtlety of this approach lies in the fact that it is not direct persuasion but creates “affinity" through making consumers feel that products or brands are like “things used by our own people." At the social level, media stereotypes (such as gender roles) subtly influence people’s cognition of their own and others’ “categories" over the long term. When these stereotypes are internalized, they limit individuals’ cognition of their own possibilities.

2.2 Construction and Reshaping of “Types"

Information parasitism not only reinforces existing “types" but can also create new “types" or blur existing boundaries through manipulation of semantics and symbols.

The Process of Mythologization: Roland Barthes pointed out how myth transforms history into nature, packaging specific intentions as “self-evident" facts. For example, the term “bourgeoisie" is “de-named" through the concept of “citizens" in political propaganda, dissolving its specific class attributes and integrating it into a seemingly universal “citizen" category, creating the illusion that “we are all the same type."

Manipulation of Imaginary Identification: In Lacan’s Imaginary, information parasitism provides individuals with various “ideal categories" and “perfect archetypes" for identification. Celebrity endorsements in advertisements and carefully presented politicians are all creating “ideal appearances," guiding audiences to project themselves into them, forming “birds of a feather" based on imagination.

Re-encoding of Symbolic Order: When interpretive codes in culture experience “dislocation," information parasitism can promote or accelerate the formation of new cultural norms and “categories." For example, the way media presents marginalized groups may ultimately lead to society’s “transcoding" of cognition toward these groups, establishing new social “categories" and acceptance.

III. New Challenges in the Digital Age: AI and Echo Chamber Effects

3.1 “Birds of a Feather" in Large Language Models

In the training process of large language models, since the models are trained with massive amounts of data, their content necessarily contains statistical concepts, thus also embodying the meaning and connotation of “birds of a feather." This brings unprecedented challenges:

Amplification of Statistical Bias: AI models inevitably absorb biases and stereotypes by learning from massive amounts of human-generated text data. When these models are used for content generation, they systematically replicate and reinforce existing “type" divisions, further consolidating stereotypes of certain groups.

Implicit Classification Logic: When AI processes information, it automatically classifies and associates based on statistical patterns. This classification is often implicit but profoundly influences the tendencies of output content. This means that AI systems themselves become embodiments and promoters of the “birds of a feather" principle.

3.2 Echo Chamber Reinforcement in Social Media

Under the strengthening of social media echo chambers, people continuously use AI to create large amounts of replicated information published on social platforms. This forms a vicious cycle:

Ecosystem of Information Parasitism: Certain specific types of information continuously occupy network resources in an information parasitic mode. These pieces of information have powerful replication and survival capabilities, like biological parasites, able to spread rapidly and occupy host resources.

Synergistic Effects of Algorithms: Social media recommendation algorithms further reinforce this phenomenon. Algorithms push similar content based on users’ past behaviors, which not only satisfies users’ preference for similarity but further narrows their information exposure, forming more closed cognitive loops.

3.3 The Necessity of Critical Thinking

Facing this phenomenon, we must develop critical information screening capabilities:

Wisdom of Seeking Good Fortune and Avoiding Harm: When screening information, we must be able to identify and exclude information with negative energy. This is not only for maintaining personal mental health but also for resisting the spread of harmful information.

Diversified Information Contact: Actively seek information from different viewpoints and positions, breaking the limitations of echo chambers. This requires us to consciously resist algorithmic recommendation logic and actively contact diversified content.

Cultivation of Metacognition: Develop reflective capabilities regarding our own cognitive processes, becoming aware of how “birds of a feather" tendencies influence our cognition, thereby enabling more objective evaluation of information.

IV. Conclusion and Prospects

“Birds of a feather" as a basic law of human society faces unprecedented challenges and opportunities in the digital age. The emergence of information parasitism has given this ancient social phenomenon new forms of expression and operational means.

From the perspective of social psychology, similarity attraction is a basic mechanism of human socialization; from the perspective of Lacanian theory, it is rooted in the deep structure of subject constitution; from the perspective of media studies, it is exploited and reshaped by information parasitism. Under the dual effects of AI and social media, this phenomenon becomes more complex and profound.

We cannot completely predict how artificial intelligence will affect humanity’s future. Each of us should rely on our own personal experiential experiences to explore and form our own viewpoints, to reshape our understanding of “intelligence" and “consciousness." Therefore, try to establish paradigmatic frameworks and concepts that you believe in, simplifying complex problems without easily falling into “either-or" binary oppositions. Use this framework or structure to cope with the complexity and rapid iteration of technological progress, while also exploring the “ontological" meaning of life.

I want to use the term information parasitism to help people understand that when we utilize artificial intelligence systems, we should avoid meta-information with powerful replication capabilities such as greed, hatred, or fear from transforming and occupying most internet resources, oppressing people. Conversely, utilize the “breadth" of artificial intelligence systems to cooperatively generate original information of truth, goodness, and beauty, providing new ideas and directions for humanity. Humans will also use their “deep thinking" capabilities to apply humanity’s infinite curiosity for self-improvement and value enhancement, maintaining free expression of art and opening hearts to dialogue with AI, thus avoiding the self-anxiety of being eliminated.

References

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Chiang, M. (2025). Theorizing Information Parasitism in the Age of AI. Unpublished Manuscript.

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Jameson, F. (1984). Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. New Left Review, 146, 53–92.

Lacan, J. (2006). The Mirror Stage as Formative of the Function of the I as Revealed in Psychoanalytic Experience. In Écrits: The First Complete Edition in English (B. Fink, Trans., pp. 75–81). Norton. (Original work published 1949)

Montoya, R. M., Horton, R. S., & Kirchner, J. (2008). Is actual similarity necessary for attraction? A meta-analysis of actual and perceived similarity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 25(6), 889–922.

Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the Classroom. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Welker, C., Heiphetz, L., & Santos, L. R. (2024). Self-views converge during enjoyable conversations. Psychological Science, 35(1), 25–38.

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資訊寄生與「物以類聚」：數位時代的認知探索

摘要

本文以「物以類聚，人以群分」為核心概念，探討資訊寄生現象如何在數位時代重塑人類的認知模式與社會互動。透過整合社會心理學、拉康精神分析理論以及當代媒體研究，本文論證資訊寄生不僅利用既存的群體分類，更積極地建構和操控這些分類，從而對個體的主體性產生深遠影響。

一、理論基礎：「物以類聚」的多重面向

1.1 社會心理學視角下的相似性吸引

在社會心理學的視角下，「物以類聚，人以群分」是一個已被多項研究證實的社會現象。人們傾向於喜愛那些態度與自己相似的人。

吸引力與相似性的循環機制：社會性動物理論明確指出，在其他條件相同的情況下，若人們知道某人與自己的觀點一致，便會認為對方會喜歡自己，而對方是否喜歡自己，是決定一個人是否喜歡另一個人的最強大因素。這形成了一個正向回饋循環：相似性促進吸引，吸引強化相似性的感知，進而鞏固群體內的同質化。

自我認知與偏見的建構：人們解釋社會事件的方式，常取決於現有的想法、信仰和範疇。對人或事物進行歸類（即劃分「類」）後，會援引指導未來期待的具體數據或刻板印象。例如，對一個人的刻板印象會影響人們對他的看法與行為，形成「預言的自我實現」——我們的觀念會無意中創造出與刻板印象相符的行為，從而驗證了最初的判斷。

這一機制的關鍵在於，個體有維護和加強自我認知的傾向，因此會傾向於選擇與自己觀點一致的人，以減少認知不協調。這種選擇性接觸不僅強化了既有的信念體系，更進一步窄化了個體的認知視野。

1.2 拉康理論：主體構成的深層結構

拉康（Jacques Lacan）的理論為理解「物以類聚」提供了更為深層的心理結構基礎。

主體的分裂與認同：拉康認為主體是分裂的、異化的，且在根本上是無意識的，由語言和「他者」（大他者）所結構。主體的認同過程，是將異於自身的他者性內置於自身。這種對「他者」的認同，尤其是對「大他者」所代表的象徵秩序的認同，使得主體不得不接受社會規範與價值觀，從而融入特定的社會群體。

三界理論與相似性的層次：

• 想像界（Imaginary）：自我的鏡像認同發生之處，主體形成統一（但誤認的）自我形象。個體會被那些反映其理想自我的事物所吸引，形成基於表象相似性的「物以類聚」。這種吸引是想像性的，建立在對完整性和統一性的幻想之上。
• 象徵界（Symbolic）：語言、法律和社會規範的領域。拉康著名的「人的欲望是他者的欲望」闡釋了個體的欲望並非純粹來自自身，而是受到「他者」欲望的結構性影響。這導致群體內在價值觀、目標和行為模式的趨同，形成更為深刻和無意識的「物以類聚」。
• 實在界（Real）：無法被符號化的創傷性核心。實在界的存在限制了完美「物以類聚」的可能性，因為它代表著本質的欠缺與非同一性。任何完美的同質化都無法達到，總有無法被歸類的「剩餘」存在。

鏡像理論的社會延伸：鏡像階段為個體日後在社會中尋求相似形象和群體奠定了基礎。透過他人的凝視，個體將自我理想與象徵秩序連結，形成對特定「類」的歸屬渴望。

1.3 參考實證研究的支持 " Welker, C., Heiphetz, L., & Santos, L. R. (2024)-views converge during enjoyable conversations"

根據Welker等人於2024年發表的研究「愉快對話期間自我觀點的趨同」，該研究深入探討了人們在對話中自我觀點的變化及其對社交連結的影響。研究發現，在愉快的對話過程中，參與者的自我觀點會逐漸趨同，這一發現具有重要意義：

首先，它證明了「物以類聚」不僅是基於相似性選擇的結果，更是在互動中動態形成的過程。其次，這種趨同現象在愉快的情境下更為顯著，暗示正向情感體驗促進了觀點的同化。最後，這一過程是雙向的——不僅是尋找相似的人，更是在互動中創造相似性。

二、資訊寄生與「物以類聚」的深層互動

2.1 資訊寄生的操作機制

資訊寄生被定義為一種動態且複雜的現象，它在符號和語言層面改變著意義的生成與傳播。結合「物以類聚」的原則，資訊寄生可以被視為一種利用並建構群體「類」的強大力量。

操縱與強化既存的「類」：資訊寄生透過媒體、廣告和政治宣傳，精準地識別並利用特定群體的既有信念、偏見和價值觀。例如，電視廣告透過重複播放來增加品牌熟悉度，使其在消費者心中「自然而然」地成為「可選之物」，甚至無需深思其內容。

這種手法的精妙之處在於，它不是直接說服，而是透過創造「親和感」，使消費者感覺產品或品牌像「自己人用的東西」。在社會層面，媒體的刻板印象（例如性別角色）長期潛移默化地影響著人們對自身和他人「類別」的認知，當這些刻板印象內化後，會限制個體對自身可能性的認知。

2.2 「類」的建構與重塑

資訊寄生不僅強化既存的「類」，更能透過語義和符號的操弄來創造新的「類」或模糊既有的分界。

神話化的過程：羅蘭·巴特指出神話如何將歷史轉化為自然，將特定意圖包裝成「不言自明」的事實。例如，「資產階級」這個詞彙在政治宣傳中透過「國民」的觀念被「去除命名」，使得其特定的階級屬性被消解，融入一個看似普遍的「國民」範疇中，製造「我們都是同一類」的幻象。

想像性認同的操控：在拉康的想像界中，資訊寄生為個體提供各種「理想的類別」和「完美的原型」供其認同。廣告中的明星代言、政治家的精心呈現，都是在製造「理想的表象」，引導受眾將自己投射其中，形成基於想像的「物以類聚」。

象徵秩序的再編碼：當文化中的解釋符碼出現「錯位」時，資訊寄生可以推動或加速新的文化規範和「類別」的形成。例如，媒體對邊緣群體的呈現方式，可能最終導致社會對這些群體認知的「轉碼」，建立新的社會「類別」和接受度。

三、數位時代的新挑戰：AI與同溫層效應

3.1 大語言模型中的「物以類聚」

在大語言模型的訓練過程中，由於其模型是以大量數據進行訓練，其內涵必然包含統計概念，因此也體現了「物以類聚」的意義內涵。這帶來了前所未有的挑戰：

統計偏見的放大：AI模型透過學習人類產生的大量文本數據，不可避免地吸收了其中的偏見和刻板印象。當這些模型被用於內容生成時，會系統性地複製和強化既有的「類」的劃分，使得某些群體的刻板印象得到進一步鞏固。

隱性的分類邏輯：AI在處理資訊時，會根據統計規律自動進行分類和關聯，這種分類往往是隱性的，但卻深刻影響著輸出內容的傾向性。這意味著AI系統本身就成為了「物以類聚」原則的體現者和推動者。

3.2 社交媒體的同溫層強化

在社交媒體同溫層的加強下，人們不斷地使用AI創造大量的複製資訊發佈在社交平台上。這形成了一個惡性循環：

資訊寄生的生態系統：某些特定類型的資訊以資訊寄生的模式不斷佔據網路資源。這些資訊具有強大的複製能力和生存能力，就像生物寄生蟲一樣，能夠快速傳播並佔據宿主的資源。

演算法的協同效應：社交媒體的推薦演算法進一步強化了這一現象。演算法會根據用戶的過往行為推送相似的內容，這不僅滿足了用戶對相似性的偏好，更進一步窄化了其資訊接觸面，形成更加封閉的認知循環。

3.3 批判性思考的必要性

面對這一現象，我們必須發展批判性的資訊篩選能力：

趋吉避凶的智慧：在篩選資訊時，我們必須能夠識別並排除那些具有負面能量的資訊。這不僅是為了維護個人的心理健康，更是為了抵制有害資訊的傳播。

多元化的資訊接觸：主動尋求不同觀點和立場的資訊，打破同溫層的限制。這需要我們有意識地對抗演算法的推薦邏輯，主動接觸多元化的內容。

後設認知的培養：發展對自身認知過程的反思能力，意識到「物以類聚」傾向對我們認知的影響，從而能夠更加客觀地評估資訊。

四、結論與展望

「物以類聚」作為人類社會的基本規律，在數位時代面臨著前所未有的挑戰和機遇。資訊寄生現象的出現，使得這一古老的社會現象獲得了新的表達形式和操作手段。

從社會心理學角度看，相似性吸引是人類社交的基本機制；從拉康理論角度看，它根植於主體構成的深層結構；從媒體研究角度看，它被資訊寄生所利用和重塑。在AI和社交媒體的雙重作用下，這一現象變得更加複雜和深刻。

我們無法完全預估人工智慧將如何影響人類未來， 我們每個人都應該依靠自己的親自體驗經驗來探索和形成我們自己的觀點，去重塑我們對「智慧」和「意識」的理解。 所以試著去建立自己相信的範式架構和理念，把複雜的問題簡化而不輕易地“非此即彼”去雙重對立。 以這框架或架構去應對技術進步的複雜和快速的疊代，同時也去探索“本體論”人生意義。

我想以資訊寄生的字詞試著讓人理解，在我們利用人工智慧系統時避免如貪婪、仇恨或恐懼的強大複製能力元資訊轉變充滿與占有大部分的網際網路資源壓迫人們。相對的利用人工智慧系統的「廣度」去合作產生具有原創性的真善美資訊，為人類提供新的想法和方向，人類也會因有「深度思考」能力將人類好奇心的無限性去自我改進與價值提升，保有自由表達藝術和敞開心扉去與AI 對話而免除被淘汰的自我焦慮。